Master of Science in Biomedical Engineering
Biomedical engineers combine a passion for engineering with medicine and life sciences. They develop new materials, devices, tools, systems and methods for the early diagnosis, prevention and treatment of pathology in order to improve and guarantee health care and quality-of-life of the individual and society.
EUR-ACE® Master (EURopean ACcredited Engineering Master)
The EUR-ACE label was accredited to this programme by the Commission des titres d’ingénieur (CTI), under the auspices of the European Network for Accreditation of Engineering Education (ENAEE).
EUR-ACE® is a framework and accreditation system that provides a set of standards that identifies high-quality engineering degree programmes in Europe and abroad.
EUR-ACE® Master (EURopean ACcredited Engineering Master)
The EUR-ACE label was accredited to this programme by the Commission des titres d’ingénieur (CTI), under the auspices of the European Network for Accreditation of Engineering Education (ENAEE).
EUR-ACE® is a framework and accreditation system that provides a set of standards that identifies high-quality engineering degree programmes in Europe and abroad.
About the programme
Programme summary
Find out more
Off to a good start
After graduation
The interuniversity program Master of Science in Biomedical Engineering is jointly organized with the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB). The references next to the courses indicate where the courses are organized:
- Courses marked with ‘j’ are jointly organized by UGent and VUB;
- Courses marked with ‘p’ are organized in parallel, both at UGent and at VUB;
- Courses marked with ‘u’ are organised by UGent;
- Courses marked with ‘v’ are organized by VUB.
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
j
|
1
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Stefaan Vandenberghe
|
6
|
|
|
j
|
1
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Peter Dubruel
|
5
|
|
|
u
|
1
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Pieter van Mierlo
|
3
|
|
|
j
|
1
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Maaike Op de Beeck
|
5
|
|
|
u
|
1
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Sunny Eloot
|
5
|
|
|
p
|
1
|
year
|
en
|
Ewout Vansteenkiste
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
1
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Sunny Eloot
|
5
|
|
|
p
|
1
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Sofie Van Hoecke
|
6
|
|
|
v
|
1
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Joost Geeroms
|
5
|
|
Subscribe to 6 credit units from the following list. Subject to approval by the faculty.
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
u
|
1
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Charlotte Debbaut
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
1
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Nele Famaey
|
6
|
|
|
j
|
1
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Sarah Verhulst
|
6
|
|
Subscribe to 30 credit units from
no less than 1 and no more than 6 modules from the following list.
Subject to approval by the faculty.
- 8 credit units in year 1
- 22 credit units in year 2
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
u
|
|
year
|
nl,en
|
Patrick Segers
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
year
|
en
|
Patrick Segers
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
year
|
en
|
Patrick Segers
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Patrick Segers
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Wout Joseph
|
4
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Birger Raa
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
nl
|
Guido Pennings
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Aleksandra Pizurica
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Wout Joseph
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Annelies Coene
|
3
|
|
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Stefaan Vandenberghe
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Pim Pullens
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Guy Nagels
|
4
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Christian Vanhove
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Vincent Keereman
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Sarah Verhulst
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Christian Vanhove
|
3
|
|
|
j
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Sarah Verhulst
|
6
|
|
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Charlotte Debbaut
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Nele Famaey
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Zeger Hens
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Ruslan Dmitriev
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Nathalie De Geyter
|
6
|
|
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Dries Van Thourhout
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Nicolas Le Thomas
|
4
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Herbert De Smet
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
nl
|
Günther Roelkens
|
6
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Johan Stiens
|
4
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Clara-Mihaela Ionescu
|
4
|
|
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Nico Buls
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Michel Sonck
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
|
|
Michel Sonck
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Werner De Gersem
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Nico Buls
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Klaus Bacher
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
nl
|
Michel Sonck
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
nl
|
Filip De Vos
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Marc Van Eijkeren
|
3
|
|
Subscribe to no more than 30 credit units from Elective Courses Ghent University or VUB. Subject to approval by the faculty.
The interuniversity program Master of Science in Biomedical Engineering is jointly organized with the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB). The references next to the courses indicate where the courses are organized:
- Courses marked with ‘j’ are jointly organized by UGent and VUB;
- Courses marked with ‘p’ are organized in parallel, both at UGent and at VUB;
- Courses marked with ‘u’ are organised by UGent;
- Courses marked with ‘v’ are organized by VUB.
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
u
|
2
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Barbara Vanderstraeten
|
3
|
|
|
p
|
2
|
year
|
en
|
Renaat Peleman
|
5
|
|
|
u
|
2
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Johan Stiens
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
2
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Jef Vandemeulebroucke
|
3
|
|
Subscribe to 30 credit units from
no less than 1 and no more than 6 modules from the following list.
Subject to approval by the faculty.
- 8 credit units in year 1
- 22 credit units in year 2
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
u
|
|
year
|
nl,en
|
Patrick Segers
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
year
|
en
|
Patrick Segers
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
year
|
en
|
Patrick Segers
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Patrick Segers
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Wout Joseph
|
4
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Birger Raa
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
nl
|
Guido Pennings
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Aleksandra Pizurica
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Wout Joseph
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Annelies Coene
|
3
|
|
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Stefaan Vandenberghe
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Pim Pullens
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Guy Nagels
|
4
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Christian Vanhove
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Vincent Keereman
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Sarah Verhulst
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Christian Vanhove
|
3
|
|
|
j
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Sarah Verhulst
|
6
|
|
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Charlotte Debbaut
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Nele Famaey
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Zeger Hens
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Ruslan Dmitriev
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Nathalie De Geyter
|
6
|
|
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Dries Van Thourhout
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Nicolas Le Thomas
|
4
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Herbert De Smet
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
nl
|
Günther Roelkens
|
6
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Johan Stiens
|
4
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Clara-Mihaela Ionescu
|
4
|
|
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Nico Buls
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Michel Sonck
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
|
|
Michel Sonck
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Werner De Gersem
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Nico Buls
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Klaus Bacher
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
nl
|
Michel Sonck
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
nl
|
Filip De Vos
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Marc Van Eijkeren
|
3
|
|
Subscribe to no more than 30 credit units from Elective Courses Ghent University or VUB. Subject to approval by the faculty.
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|
2
|
year
|
en
|
|
24
|
|
The interuniversity program Master of Science in Biomedical Engineering is jointly organized with the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB). The references next to the courses indicate where the courses are organized:
- Courses marked with ‘j’ are jointly organized by UGent and VUB;
- Courses marked with ‘p’ are organized in parallel, both at UGent and at VUB;
- Courses marked with ‘u’ are organised by UGent;
- Courses marked with ‘v’ are organized by VUB.
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
j
|
1
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Stefaan Vandenberghe
|
6
|
|
|
j
|
1
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Peter Dubruel
|
5
|
|
|
u
|
1
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Pieter van Mierlo
|
3
|
|
|
j
|
1
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Maaike Op de Beeck
|
5
|
|
|
u
|
1
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Sunny Eloot
|
5
|
|
|
p
|
1
|
year
|
en
|
Ewout Vansteenkiste
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
1
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Sunny Eloot
|
5
|
|
|
p
|
1
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Sofie Van Hoecke
|
6
|
|
|
v
|
1
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Joost Geeroms
|
5
|
|
|
u
|
2
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Barbara Vanderstraeten
|
3
|
|
|
p
|
2
|
year
|
en
|
Renaat Peleman
|
5
|
|
|
u
|
2
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Johan Stiens
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
2
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Jef Vandemeulebroucke
|
3
|
|
Subscribe to 6 credit units from the following list. Subject to approval by the faculty.
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
u
|
1
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Charlotte Debbaut
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
1
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Nele Famaey
|
6
|
|
|
j
|
1
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Sarah Verhulst
|
6
|
|
Subscribe to 30 credit units from
no less than 1 and no more than 6 modules from the following list.
Subject to approval by the faculty.
- 8 credit units in year 1
- 22 credit units in year 2
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
u
|
|
year
|
nl,en
|
Patrick Segers
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
year
|
en
|
Patrick Segers
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
year
|
en
|
Patrick Segers
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Patrick Segers
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Wout Joseph
|
4
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Birger Raa
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
nl
|
Guido Pennings
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Aleksandra Pizurica
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Wout Joseph
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Annelies Coene
|
3
|
|
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Stefaan Vandenberghe
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Pim Pullens
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Guy Nagels
|
4
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Christian Vanhove
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Vincent Keereman
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Sarah Verhulst
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Christian Vanhove
|
3
|
|
|
j
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Sarah Verhulst
|
6
|
|
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Charlotte Debbaut
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Nele Famaey
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Zeger Hens
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Ruslan Dmitriev
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Nathalie De Geyter
|
6
|
|
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Dries Van Thourhout
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Nicolas Le Thomas
|
4
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Herbert De Smet
|
6
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
nl
|
Günther Roelkens
|
6
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Johan Stiens
|
4
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Clara-Mihaela Ionescu
|
4
|
|
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Nico Buls
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Michel Sonck
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
|
|
Michel Sonck
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Werner De Gersem
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Nico Buls
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 1
|
en
|
Klaus Bacher
|
3
|
|
|
v
|
|
sem 2
|
nl
|
Michel Sonck
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
nl
|
Filip De Vos
|
3
|
|
|
u
|
|
sem 2
|
en
|
Marc Van Eijkeren
|
3
|
|
Subscribe to no more than 30 credit units from Elective Courses Ghent University or VUB. Subject to approval by the faculty.
| Course | Ref | MT1 | Semester | Language | Instructor | Crdt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|
2
|
year
|
en
|
|
24
|
|
Competence field 1: Competences in one/more scientific discipline(s)
- Master and apply advanced knowledge in the own engineering discipline in solving complex problems.
- Apply Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) tools and advanced communication instruments in a creative and purposeful way.
- Be familiar with and have an understanding of the basic concepts and principles in the field of anatomy, (cell- and molecular) biology, chemistry, physiology, biomechanics and medical and health sciences.
- Be familiar with and have an understanding of standard methods for the quantitative measurement of structures and functioning of biological systems on molecular, organic and system- level.
- Be familiar with the functioning of medical devices and have insight in the relations between the results of measurements and the observed or controlled biophysical parameters.
- Be familiar with and have an understanding of state-of-the-art methods for data analysis and the principles of artificial intelligence in data processing and medical decision support systems.
- Have a fundamental insight in the physical principles, technological possibilities and limitations of medical signal and imaging modalities.
- Have a good understanding of the physical and chemical properties of body tissues, supplementary or substituting (synthetic) biomedical materials and their interactions.
- Be able to apply algorithms for the assessment and optimization of radiation doses based on a profound insight into the absorption of the dosage and the functioning of radiation-generating and detecting machinery.
- Be able to estimate the consequences of the interaction between radiation and living tissues and biomedical materials.
- Analyse complex problems and translate them into concrete research questions.
- Consult the scientific literature as part of the own research.
- Select and apply the appropriate models, methods and techniques.
- Develop and validate mathematical models and methods.
- Interpret research findings in an objective and critical manner.
- Analyse complex multidisciplinary biomedical problems based on (recent) scientific research and transform them into a logically structured, technologically realisable and ethically justifiable research plan.
- Answer a concrete and relevant biomedical engineering question on a basis of recent technical, scientific and medical knowledge.
- Apply complex concepts, techniques and methods in order to solve real problems in physiology and clinical medicine.
- Critically and permanently evaluate the quality, (bio-)ethical aspects, innovative value and (bio-)safety of (own) research.
- Process, evaluate, interpret and summarize results of (own) research in a systematic, critical and clear way.
- Independently form an opinion on complex situations and problems, and defend this point of view.
- Apply knowledge in a creative, purposeful and innovative way to research, conceptual design and production.
- Critically reflect on one’s own way of thinking and acting, and understand the limits of one’s competences.
- Stay up‐to‐date with the evolutions in the discipline to elevate the own competences to expert level.
- Readily adapt to changing professional circumstances.
- Have the ability to communicate in English about the own field of specialisation.
- Project management: have the ability to formulate objectives, report efficiently, keep track of targets, follow the progress of the project,...
- Have the ability to work as a member of a team in a multi‐disciplinary working‐environment, as well as being capable of taking on supervisory responsibilities.
- Report on technical or scientific subjects verbally, in writing and using graphics.
- Critically discuss a research plan with fellows, doctors and researchers working in disciplines related to biomedical sciences and health care.
- Communicate (own) results orally and in writing in a systematic and clear way to various levels.
- Act in an ethical, professional and social way.
- Recognize the most important business and legal aspects of the own engineering discipline.
- Understand the historical evolution of the own engineering discipline and its social relevance.
- Take up a well-founded position about socio-economic and societal aspects of biomedical engineering.
- Take into consideration the medical ethics and laws and rules with respect to the implementation of medical-technical actions and scientific research in a clinical environment.
- Show a strong international awareness and be open for new societal questions, evolutions, needs and demands for innovation.
- Be aware of ethical and safety aspects in biomedical practice.
- Strive for a continuous improvement and guarantee of health care and quality of life of the individual and society.
- Master the complexity of technical systems by using system and process models.
- Reconcile conflicting specifications and prior conditions in a high‐quality and innovative concept or process.
- Synthesize incomplete, contradictory or redundant data into useful information.
- Possess sufficient ready knowledge and understanding to evaluate the results of complex calculations, or make approximate estimates.
- Pay attention to entire life cycles of systems, machines, and processes.
- Pay attention to sustainability, energy‐efficiency, environmental cost, use of raw materials and labour costs.
- Pay attention to all aspects of reliability, safety, and ergonomics.
- Have insight into and understanding of the importance of entrepreneurship.
- Show perseverance, innovativeness, and an aptitude for creating added value.
- Have sufficient knowledge and understanding to develop and technically evaluate new materials, equipment, tools, systems and methods for prognosis, (early) diagnosis, prevention and treatment of illness and for convalescence.
- Mathematically translate complex biomechanical, biological and physiological processes under normal and pathological conditions into advanced models and paradigms, knowing their limitations and finding creative solutions for these limitations.
- Apply the most suitable instruments, concepts, techniques and methods for the solution of real problems in physiology and clinical medicine on molecular, organic and system level.
- Target-oriented implementation of algorithms for the extraction of clinically relevant information from biomedical signals or images, including the most suitable method for the reduction of measurement artefacts (baseline drift, noise, interferences, mistakes in the models,...).
- Be aware of the importance of maintenance, quality control, safety and risk management and regulations for the specific application level.
- Correctly assess the role and possibilities of data-processing systems in a local (hospital) and regional environment while being aware of potential problems associated with the implementation of such systems.
- Specify the physical and technical-chemical properties of synthetic materials for a wide range of biomedical applications and implement adequate tests.
- Introduce measures and procedures in hospitals to ensure the safety and protection of radiation of persons (primarily patients) exposed to radiation for medical purposes.
- Accept radiation-generating medical devices and products as well as radiation-detecting equipment prior to their first use.
- Elaborate, implement and follow-up of quality control procedures.
- Perform device-specific dosimetry.
- Provide assistance, in collaboration with the medical staff, to patient-specific dosimetry and projects on optimisation of doses.
- Provide professional advice for the preparation of specifications for the purchase of radiation-generating and -detecting devices and products.
- Adequately choose, accept and calibrate instruments and devices for dosimetry and measurement of radiation activity.